Animal Testing And Its Effects On Human Health - 1433 Words

Ferdowsian and Beck go on to add that more evidence supports that animal testing comes at a higher cost to animals than was initially acknowledged. Accounts of anxiety disorders, changes in behavior, hormone levels, and the amount of pain animals endure now drive the conversation regarding reforming animal testing practices. It is also noted that the predictive value of animal models do not translate into clinical success. The majority of animal research does not lead to improving human health. Most argue the use of animals overall is a needless endeavor when new technologies are in place that can provide similar levels of advancement, and when human tissue is available that can offer a better understand of human health. Ferdowsian and Beck, express that a reformation needs to take place in animal testing, and the conversation needs to be driven by ethics of using animals in research. Growing evidence supports that some models or animal use is antiquated and with developing technologies new pathways should be explored to improve human health. Article 4: Duty and the Beast: animal experimentation and neglected interests, D Benatar. (2000) In this article, Benatar brings to the forefront the argument that experimentation on animals should be a great concern because of the suffering and loss of life in spite of the regulations and restrictions that are supposed to guide the practice. Benatar goes as far to claim that animal testing is uncharitable, and does not supportShow MoreRelatedAnimal Testing And Its Effects On Human Health1146 Words   |  5 PagesMillions of animals suffer and die unnecessarily each year as they become subjects for medical testing and other horrendous experiments. Although some people believe such activities are necessary to progress in medical research, in reality it does very little to improve human health and development. For decades, drug and chemical safety assessments have been based on laboratory experimentations involving rabbits, dogs, rodents, and other animals. Consequently, nine out of ten drugs proven safeRead MoreEssay on The Use of Animal Research 1431 Words   |  6 PagesHow will animal research tell us the outcomes of the human body? How can we live longer and healthier lives with the use of animals? Do animals have a link to the human body that we are able to prove that trying new drugs or new cosmetics will be a benefit for us? I disagree. I believe we test on animals to figure out what are the possible outcomes for humans; however, the use of animals is cruel and unnecessary because they do not have a similar body system as humans do. We use at least a millionsRead Moreanimal testing essay1139 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Animal testing can be defined as the process of using animals in experiments. Normally the research such as biomedical researches, drug tests and toxicology tests are conducted in universities, medical schools, and pharmaceutical companies. Scientists use many types of animals in their experiments such as guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, monkeys, chimpanzees, rats, mice, dogs and cats. Around 50-100 millions vertebrates are used in experiments annually and in United States, the number of rats andRead MoreHuman Testing On Human Beings1727 Words   |  7 Pageschemicals effect humans and animals? The answer is, we must perform test on something that is similar to the human species. Animals having similar traits and features in the body have often been the experimentation method of choice. By using animals in testing has raised a lot of concern and controversy over the years, but so has testing on human beings. One of the most horrifying examples of human testing was during World War II, the Nazi party in its quest to create the ultimate human species,Read MoreA nimal Testing Is Not Reliable For Finding Cures For Humans1486 Words   |  6 Pagesstudies demonstrate that animal testing is not reliable in finding cures for humans. Medicines and vaccines that are successfully developed and proven effective in animals such as mice and many primates fail when used in human beings. Medicines and chemicals that are effective in animals end up being relabeled after they produce side effects in human beings that were not observed in animals during the testing. Many of them also become dangerous to human beings. Therefore, animal tests yield little successRead MoreThe Fight Against Animal Testing1456 Words   |  6 PagesThe Fight Against Animal Testing in Cosmetics The makeup industry has flourished for as long as one can remember. The popularity of beauty bloggers, celebrity makeup lines, etc. have actually led to a record-breaking boost in makeup sales. Cosmetic brands have become more prominent, and makeup stores such as Sephora and Ulta continue to thrive. However, various demands must be met in order to keep up with the growing consumership, and one of the most controversial topics contributing to the successRead MoreAnimal Testing Is Cruel And Inhumane1229 Words   |  5 Pagesforms of complications among human beings citing the various changes of conditions from day to day. Scientists are charged with the techniques to finding solutions to the complicated health issues facing humans that have no solution. The risks associated with the pursuit of the solution has made the scientists to be cautious of their actions, an action that led to most of them opting for the use of animals to carry out the tests before implementing the solution fo r human beings. The idea has alwaysRead MoreAnimal Experimentation And The Medical Field Essay1367 Words   |  6 PagesAnimal experimentation has notably advanced the medical field since its beginnings nearly two thousand years ago. Modern surgeries, antibiotics, and vaccines have been discovered and put into effect to better the lives of humans worldwide and increase our life expectancy by thirty years. However, animal rights activists argue that tests are not accurate or reliable due to angularities. Morality continues to toy with the minds of the public. Religious organizations, like the Catholic Church, approveRead MoreThe Effects Of Animal Testing Essay1432 Words   |  6 PagesThe Effects of Animal Testing Animal testing is by far, inhumane and downright unacceptable. Although, there are various types of organizations that are pro-animal care, such as, Animal Welfare information center, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare and, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals or, PETA, all in which do their best to keep animal testing as humane as possible, there are alternatives for finding cures or testing the safety of certainRead MoreAnimal Experimentation1612 Words   |  7 Pagesaccept animal experimentation but they also increased the use of genetically modified mice in carrying out such tests. On July 27th official statistics showed that, for the first time, the use of genetically-modified animals has outstripped that of conventional creatures and hardly anyone flinched knowing that† (Britain: Tweaking the Experiments; Animal Testing). Imagine the world without the essential vaccines that are used to promote healthy humans, but th at is the world without animal experimentations

The Position Of A Hr Manager At Both The Uk And Russian...

Introduction: Throughout this assignment I will be placing myself in the position of a HR manager at both the UK and Russian Olympics and I will discuss possible issues that LGBT Olympians may face in such contexts. I will identify key challenges that I may face when introducing and implementing equality and diversity measures if the Olympic Games were to happen again today. I will approach such a task by first outlining the history and definitions associated with LGBT. I will frame this essay by drawing upon social and political changes through the enactment of laws and social movements, as well as empirical research, class-based discussions, and theories of equality and diversity. Brief history of the definition of LGBT: The acronym†¦show more content†¦Currently there are 76 countries where homosexuality is illegal and in 5 it carries the death penalty (Wical, 2014; Stonewall, 2015b). As the UK government and Stonewall (2015b) estimates that there are 3.6 million LGB people in Britain, which is thought to be an underestimate and does not include transgender people, it is not difficult to imagine the hundreds of millions of people living in fear of prejudice, oppression and death worldwide. A brief history of LGBT movements and attitudes, and current social and political movements in both countries: In 1987, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that 75% of the population held homosexual activity to be â€Å"always or mostly wrong†, with just 11% believing it to be never wrong (1987: 4). As of 2012, those figures showed that attitudes had altered to 28% and 47% respectively (2012: 5). As of 2015 Stonewall expanded its current campaigns and programmes to â€Å"include and involve† trans people and also â€Å"developed new work on issues that specifically affect them† (Stonewall, 2015c). LGBT citizens have most of the same legal rights as non-LGBT citizens and the UK provides â€Å"one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT communities†. This was documented in the ILGA-Europe (2014) review of LGBT rights which gave the UK with the highest score in Europe; they

Qualitative Methods in Business Research Methods

Question: Discuss about the Qualitative Methods in Business Research Methods. Answer: Introduction: The aim of the following paper is to outline a proper research methodology for the provided case study. At the same time, the paper would point out the feasibility and probable contribution on the current situation of corporate governance and ethical behaviour of the considered research. Considering the given case study, this says that Mr. Jones is pursuing a research on the ethical cultures of the boards in time of confronting with the issues of customer bribery in any of the Celtic nations like Wales or Scotland or Ireland. It is understandable that the possible research question, the answer of which is anticipated to be achieved through the concerned study is related to Mr. Joness belief that companies with Celtic background holds more ethical responsibilities than those belonging to the English background. Therefore, a proper set of research questions for the concerned research project should be the following key variables, which are Celtic and ethical. With the help of the above designed research questions, the concerned researcher will be able to establish whether the companies of Celtic backgrounds have more ethical concerns than those of English background or not. However, for the considered project purpose, a convenient research design would be experimental and quasi experimental research design. The reason behind selecting the above mentioned style is because of the researchers concept that indicates that business companies from the Celtic background have better ethical perspectives. Therefore, understandably according to the researchers conceptualization, the variable of business ethics is manipulated or determined by the other variable Celtic. In the experimental and quasi experimental research design, a research project attempts to examine the effects of one variable upon one or more variables (Bryman and Bell 2015). Nevertheless, it is required to mention here that among experiment and quasi experiment research design, the quasi experimental research design should be selected as per the reason; the researcher has not chosen the independent variables randomly (Hair 2015). In the quasi experimental style, research projects become selectiv e and particular regarding the research variables (Mackey and Gass 2015). Most significantly, in order to accomplish the research design, the research project would have to procure casual hypothesis as the quasi experiment research design mainly tests the casual research hypothesis (Panneerselvam 2014). The advised research design would be better than the research design approached by Jones due to the reason that with the help of the mentioned design, the research project would successfully identify as well as establish comparison groups, which would have proper validity. On the other hand, the research design would efficiently accompany the motivation of the researcher behind doing the particular research. It has been identified from the given case study that the researcher Mr. Jones has found out that no research on ethical cultures of companies when confronted with bribery issues has been taken place in the Celtic territories like Wales or Scotland. Most significantly, the given case study says that the researcher has acquired valid and significant responses from more than half of the selected companies. It is indicative of the truth that the researcher is getting impressive responses for the project. Therefore, it is understandable that the actual motivation of the author or the researcher regarding the project is the positive result that the person has already acquired from near about 23 respondent organizations. Additionally, it can be also said that the author or researcher of the concerned project is encouraged after knowing the fact that his project would be probably the first evident of a research that identifies ethical behaviours of Celtic business organization in time of confronting issues of bribery. The case study has initially indicated that there are no such clear evidences of experimental researches on the distinct topic in the Celtic nations. Therefore, the motivation is justified. In the context, it is essential to mention that the chosen variables Celtic and ethical decisions do require having valid as well as reliable measures. In order to achieve a valid and reliable measurement, it would be necessary to utilize the ratio level (Saunders and Lewis 2014). With the help of the ratio level, the project would simply make categorization of the collected responses. At the same time, the particular measurement procedure would be helpful in allowing a comparison with a proper extent to which the differentiated subjects hold the dependant variable. Most significantly, with the help of ratio level of measurement, it would be easy to acquire a numerical data regarding the comparison, which would enlighten the present premise of research (Wilson 2014). The procedure for measurement will be reliable as the particular way of measuring the variables, give an appropriate measurement of chosen variable through numeric data, which seldom proves inefficient. On the other han d, a casual yet elaborative categorization would be also achieved. Therefore, following the selected measurement procedure for the variables, the convenient research philosophy and research approach would be positivism and deductive approach respectively (Zikmund et al. 2013). In terms of research method or the process of collecting data, along with the survey or quantitative technique of primary research, the qualitative technique or interview method would be also required in order to get through information. The interview process will be significant to pursue in depth and critical evaluation of the essential and recognized factors related to the particular variables (Blumberg et al. 2014). Therefore, both qualitative and quantitative analysis techniques would be helpful. In this respect it is essential to mention that the accomplishment of the considered research project would be a significant piece of contribution for determining the role of race and cultural aspects on the corporate governance and ethical responsibilities. It is a true fact that no significant research paper is there, which has investigated the ethical responsibilities taken for addressing customer bribery by the Celtic companies with board of directors (Liang et al. 2014). Therefore, the contribution of the considered approach will prove helpful for the customers of the Celtic nations. With the help of the proposed research, the people of two nations will come to know about which business organizations are ethically right for them. At the same time, the project would help the international business organizations who are or will be interested in making business with the business organizations of the Celtic territories (Liang et al. 2014). Moreover, it is required to mention here that for the academic individuals like Mr. Jones, who are interested about the field of corporate governance and business ethics, would find the considered research project very helpful. They could acquire significant data regarding corporate ethical responsibilities of both the business organizations of Celtic region and England. Most significantly, for the author or researcher, the achievement of the research project would not only help internal and domestic business sector or the customers, but also would help him to obtain a cohesive as well as coherent answer regarding his concept. Nevertheless, in terms of recommending improvements, it needs to say that the project should acquire both qualitative and quantitative data from both companies from Celtic and English background. The research would turn out to be completely vague and inacceptable if no data would be collected from organizations of English background. References Blumberg, B.F., Cooper, D.R. and Schindler, P.S., 2014.Business research methods. McGraw-hill education. Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015.Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Eriksson, P. and Kovalainen, A., 2015.Qualitative Methods in Business Research: A Practical Guide to Social Research. Sage. Hair, J.F., 2015.Essentials of business research methods. ME Sharpe. Liang, H., Marquis, C., Renneboog, L. and Sun, S.L., 2014. Speaking of corporate social responsibility. Mackey, A. and Gass, S.M., 2015.Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge. Panneerselvam, R., 2014.Research methodology. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Saunders, M.N. and Lewis, P., 2014.Doing research in business and management: An essential guide to planning your project. Pearson Higher Ed. Wilson, J., 2014.Essentials of business research: A guide to doing your research project. Sage. Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. and Griffin, M., 2013.Business research methods. Cengage Learning.

Your Bones In Space Essays - Space Medicine, Skeletal System

Your Bones in Space Hypogravitational Osteoporosis: A review of literature. By Lambert Titus Parker. May 19 1987. (GEnie Spaceport) Osteoporosis: a condition characterized by an absolute decrease in the amount of bone present to a level below which it is capable of maintaining the structural integrity of the skeleton. To state the obvious, Human beings have evolved under Earth's gravity "1G". Our musculoskeleton system have developed to help us navigate in this gravitational field, endowed with ability to adapt as needed under various stress, strains and available energy requirement. The system consists of Bone a highly specialized and dynamic supporting tissue which provides the vertebrates its rigid infrastructure. It consists of specialized connective tissue cells called osteocytes and a matrix consisting of organic fibers held together by an organic cement which gives bone its tenacity, elasticity and its resilience. It also has an inorganic component located in the cement between the fibers consist ing of calcium phosphate [85%]; Calcium carbonate [10%] ; others [5%] which give it the hardness and rigidity. Other than providing the rigid infrastructure, it protects vital organs like the brain], serves as a complex lever system, acts as a storage area for calcium which is vital for human metabolism, houses the bone marrow within its mid cavity and to top it all it is capable of changing its architecture and mass in response to outside and inner stress. It is this dynamic remodeling of bone which is of primary interest in microgravity. To feel the impact of this dynamicity it should be noted that a bone remodeling unit [a coupled phenomena of bone reabsorption and bone formation] is initiated and another finished about every ten seconds in a healthy adult. This dynamic system responds to mechanical stress or lack of it by increasing the bone mass/density or decreasing it as per the demand on the system. -eg; a person dealing with increased mechanical stress will respond with inc reased mass / density of the bone and a person who leads a sedentary life will have decreased mass/density of bone but the right amount to support his structure against the mechanical stresses she/she exists in. Hormones also play a major role as seen in postmenopausal females osteoporosis (lack of estrogens) in which the rate of bone reformation is usually normal with the rate of bone re-absorption increased. In Skeletal system whose mass represent a dynamic homeostasis in 1g weight- bearing,when placed in microgravity for any extended period of time requiring practically no weight bearing, the regulatory system of bone/calcium reacts by decreasing its mass. After all, why carry all that extra mass and use all that energy to maintain what is not needed? Logically the greatest loss -demineralization- occurs in the weight bearing bones of the leg [Os Calcis] and spine. Bone loss has been estimated by calcium-balance studies and excretion studies. An increased urinary excretion of cal cium , hydroxyproline Rapid increase of urinary calcium has been noted after takeoff with a plateau reached by day 30. In contrast, there was a steady increase off mean fecal calcium throughout the stay in microgravity and was not reduced until day 20 of return to 1 G while urinary calcium content usually returned to preflight level by day 10 of return to 1G. There is also significant evidence derived primarily from rodent studies that seem to suggest decreased bone formation as a factor in hypogravitational osteoporosis. Boy Frame,M.D a member of NASA's LifeScience Advisory Committee [LSAC] postulated that "the initial pathologic event after the astronauts enter zero gravity occurs in the bone itself, and that changes in mineral homeostasis and the calcitropic hormones are secondary to this. It appears that zero gravity in some ways stimulate bone re-absorption, possibly through altered bioelectrical fields or altered distribution of tension and pressure on bone cells themselves. It is possible that gravitational and muscular strains on the skeletal system cause friction between bone crystals which creates bioelectrical fields. This bioelectrical effect in some way may stimulate bone cells and affect bone remodeling." In the early missions, X-ray densitometry was used to measure the weight-bearing bones pre &

Concession and Refutation

Concession and Refutation Conceding and refuting are important language functions in English. Here are a few short definitions: Concede: Admit that another person is right about something. Refute: Prove that someone else is wrong about something. Often, speakers of English will concede a point, only to refute a larger issue:   Its true that working can be tedious. However, without a job, you wont be able to pay the bills.While you might say that the weather has been really bad this winter, its important to remember that we needed lots of snow in the mountains.I agree with you that we need to improve our sales figures. On the other hand, I dont feel we should change our overall strategy at this time.   Its common to concede and refute at work when discussing strategy or brainstorming. Conceding and refuting are also very common in all types of debates  including political and social issues. When trying to make your point, its a good idea to first frame the argument. Next, concede a point if applicable. Finally, refute a larger issue.   Framingthe Issue Begin by introducing a general belief that you would like to refute. You can use general statements, or speak about specific people that you would like to refute. Here are some formulas to help you frame the issue: Person or institution to be refuted   feel / think / believe / insist / that opinion to be refuted Some people feel that there is not enough charity in the world.Peter insists that we haven’t invested enough in research and development.ï » ¿The board of directors believes that students should take more standardized tests. Making the Concession: Use the concession to show that you have understood the gist of your opponent’s argument. Using this form, you will show that while a specific point is true, the overall understanding is incorrect. You can begin with an independent clause using subordinators that show opposition: While it’s true / sensible / evident / likely that specific benefit of argument, While it’s evident that our competition has outspent us on, ...While it’s sensible to measure students’ aptitudes, ... Although / Even though / Though  its true that opinion,   Although its true that our strategy hasnt worked to date, ...Even though it’s true that the country is currently struggling economically, ... An alternate form is to first concede by stating that you agree or can see the advantage of something in a single sentence. Use  concession verbs  such as: I concede that / I agree that / I admit that   Refuting the Point Now it’s time to make your point. If youve used a subordinator (while, although, etc.), use your best argument to finish the sentence: it’s also true / sensible / evident that refutationit’s more important / essential / vital that refutationthe bigger issue / point is that refutationwe must remember / take into consideration / conclude that refutation †¦ it’s also evident that financial resources will always be limited.†¦ the bigger point is that we do not have the resources to spend.†¦ we must remember that standardized testing such as the TOEFL leads to rote learning.   If youve made a concession in a single sentence, use a linking word or phrase  such as  however, nevertheless, on the contrary, or  above all  to state your refutation: However, we currently do not have that capability.Nevertheless, weve succeeded in attracting more customers to our stores.Above all, the peoples will needs to be respected. Making Your Point Once you’ve refuted a point, continue to provide evidence to  further back up your point of view.   It is clear / essential / of utmost importance that (opinion)I feel / believe / think that (opinion) I believe that charity can lead to dependence.I think that we need to focus more on our successful products rather than develop new, untested merchandise.It is clear that students are not expanding their minds through rote learning for tests.   Complete Refutations Let’s take a look a few concessions and refutations  in their completed form: Students feel that homework is an unnecessary strain on their  limited time. While its true that some teachers assign too much homework, we must remember the wisdom in the saying  practice makes perfect. It is essential that information we learn is repeated to fully become useful knowledge.   Some people insist that profit is the only viable motivation for a corporation. I concede that a  company must profit to stay in business. However, the larger issue is that employee satisfaction leads to improved interactions with clients. It is clear that employees who feel they are compensated fairly will consistently give their best.   More English Functions Conceding and refuting are known as language functions. In other words, language which is used to achieve a specific purpose. You can learn more about a wide variety of language functions and how to use them in everyday English.

Antony And Cleopatra Essays - Cultural Depictions Of Cleopatra

Antony And Cleopatra Essays - Cultural Depictions Of Cleopatra Antony and Cleopatra In Shakespeare's tragedy/history/Roman play Antony and Cleopatra, we are told the story of two passionate and power-hungry lovers. In the first two Acts of the play we are introduced to some of the problems and dilemmas facing the couple (such as the fact that they are entwined in an adulterous relationship, and that both of them are forced to show their devotion to Caesar). Along with being introduced to Antony and Cleopatra's strange love affair, we are introduced to some interesting secondary characters. One of these characters is Enobarbus. Enobarbus is a high-ranking soldier in Antony's army who it seems is very close to his commander. We know this by the way Enobarbus is permitted to speak freely (at least in private) with Antony, and often is used as a person to whom Antony confides in. We see Antony confiding in Enobarbus in Act I, Scene ii, as Antony explains how Cleopatra is "cunning past man's thought" (I.ii.146). In reply to this Enobarbus speaks very freely of his view of Cleopatra, even if what he says is very positive: ...her passions are made of nothing but the finest part of pure love. We cannot call her winds and waters sighs and tears; they are greater storms and tempests than almanacs can report. This cannot be cunning in her; if it be she makes a shower of rain as well as Jove. (I, ii, 147-152) After Antony reveals that he has just heard news of his wife's death, we are once again offered an example of Enobarbus' freedom to speak his mind, in that he tells Antony to "give the gods a thankful sacrifice" (I.ii.162), essentially saying that Fulvia's death is a good thing. Obviously, someone would never say something like this unless they were in very close company. While acting as a friend and promoter of Antony, Enobarbus lets the audience in on some of the myth and legend surrounding Cleopatra. Probably his biggest role in the play is to exaggerate Anthony and Cleopatra's relationship. Which he does so well in the following statements: When she first met Mark Antony, she pursed up his heart, upon the river of Cydnus. (II.ii.188-189) The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, Burned on the water: the poop was beaten gold; Purple the sails, and so perfumed that The winds were lovesick with them; the oars were silver, (II.ii.193-197) And, for his ordinary, pays his heart For what his eyes eat only. (II.ii.227-228) Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale Her infinite variety.... (II.ii.237-238) In these passages, Enobarbus turns Antony's and Cleopatra's meeting into a fairy tale and leads the audience into believing the two are inseparable. His speeches in Act II are absolutely vital to the play in that this is what Shakespeare wants the audience to view Antony and Cleopatra. Also, in these passages, Cleopatra is described as irresistible and beautiful beyond belief another view that is necessary for us to believe in order to buy the fact that a man with so much to lose would be willing to risk it all in order to win her love. Quite possibly, these passages may hint that Enobarbus is himself in love with Cleopatra. After all, it would be hard to come up with such flowery language if a person were not inspired. Enobarbus may be lamenting his own passions vicariously through the eyes of Antony. This would be convenient in questioning Enobarbus' loyalty, which becomes very important later on in the play (considering he kills himself over grief from fearing he betrayed his leader). The loyalty of Enobarbus is indeed questionable. Even though we never hear him utter a single disparaging remark against Antony, he does admit to Menas that he "will praise any man that will praise me" (II.iii.88), suggesting that his honor and loyalty may just be simple brown-nosing. Shakespeare probably fashioned Enobarbus as a means of relaying information to the audience that would otherwise be difficult or awkward to bring forth from other characters (such as Cleopatra's beauty and the story of her betrayal of Caesar), but he also uses him as way to inject some levity and humor in the play, showing the characters eagerness to have a good time. Evidence of this comes in Enobarbus' affinity for drunkenness. In both Act I and Act

Marketing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Marketing research - Essay Example e noted that BMW operate in a highly competitive environment made of various players, but it mainly concentrates in the high-end and luxury automobile market. Its most fierce competitor in the European market is Mercedes-Benz brand, which also specialise in high-end and luxury automobile products. Equally, the customer base of BMW mainly consists of the high-income earners. The above image illustrates the buyer decision process that BMW customers undergo. In the first phase of the process, the buyers acknowledge they need a car. Secondly, the sought for information on cars that are available within their price range. Thirdly, the buyers evaluate the different brands of cars that he or she can afford. Fourthly, after choosing the best alternative the buyer, makes the purchase and in the last phase of the process, the buyer evaluates if his option was correct or wrong and whether he needs to make changes on the car or buy another one. According to the studies conducted by Ansoff (1957), an organisation such as BMW has four viable options as presented in the image below, these options include penetrating deep into the market, product or market diversification, development of the new product and development of new markets. In regards to the Ansoff’s matrix, it is recommended that BMW should diversify its range of products to include low budget vehicles that are of high quality. By pursuing this strategy, BMW will be exploiting a new market segment, which will enable it to increase its market share as well as sales, and thereby, wade off competition from the likes of Mercedes-Benz. Currently, it can be noted that the key market segment for BMW brands is the high-end and luxury market, which only comprise of wealthy individuals or high-income earners. However, from the strategic option chosen above, BMW will now also target low-income earners because they are in need of quality vehicles and the only option they currently have is second-hand vehicles and low quality

Market Orientation in Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Market Orientation in Business - Essay Example Considering any business term requires a clear understanding of what is meant by its name. Thus, it is necessary to give an explanation of the term ‘market orientation’ before going to its detailed analysis. According to a definition provided by the Business Dictionary, market orientation is ‘a business approach or philosophy that focuses on identifying and meeting the stated or hidden needs or wants of customers’. As stated in the Cambridge Dictionary, by the term ‘market orientation’ one should understand ‘management of a company, product, brand, etc. so that it satisfies the needs of customers’. In the book ‘Changing Market Relationships’ written by Jean-Jacques Lambin, market orientation is defined as ‘a set of capabilities, activities and behaviors needed to implement a strong marketing orientation’ (Lambin 2008).Despite the fact that all the definitions mentioned above reflect the main idea behind mar ket orientation quite clearly, the most comprehensive definition of the term is presented by Morgan and Strong in their work named ‘Market Orientation and dimensions of strategic orientation’. In this work, the two authors define perceive the concept of market orientation as a certain mode of corporate management that is founded on encouraging a permanent gathering and sharing of statistical information regarding customers, appreciation of customer needs as a fundamental aspect of the business.

Bolsheviks and Revolution Essay Example for Free

Bolsheviks and Revolution Essay It is time to take action. Let go of the old ways and embrace a new one that promises betterment for yourselves, and especially a brighter future for your children. Let us abandon centuries of being poor, illiterate, and subjects to the select few. Our ancestors have quietly, and perhaps, gladly accepted the Tsar and the so-called nobilitys orders, demands, and humiliations. Perhaps they were glad, and perhaps they were not. They may have secretly wanted something different for us, their children. But without anyone leading them, they kept their secrets in their hearts. Now is the time to realize our forebears dream of a free people in a free nation. A nation where the masses needs are heard and taken cared of. We are all tired from the promises of liberation that some groups have postulated but never made true. To take up force is regrettably necessary to dislodge the wealthy, fat and richly-dressed nobility. They have an over-abundance of land that provides them with large incomes. They have excess food on their table that they never knew what being hungry means. They have armies and soldiers that fight for them during war. Their children will grow up with no fear of the future for their wealth and their status would speak wonders for them. Did you not wonder how its like to have even a portion of what they have? Wouldnt you like to prepare even the simplest food to calm your childrens hunger so that they may sleep the night full, instead of choosing to sleep in order to forget hunger? Our children deserve to eat and be clothed with warm clothes during the bitter winter months. We all deserve better than what the royals and the autocrats deem to bestow on us depending on what they think our worth. We are people like they are. They shouldnt have more of whats their due while we get little of whats rightfully ours. 2 Wouldnt you want to till your own land and enjoy your own produce instead of tilling a land and giving the produce to your rulers? The peasants sweat and work each day to make the lands productive. And what do you get in exchange? You pay outrageous rents to people who never had their nails dirtied. These landlords never knew the kind of labor that each one of you has to go through everyday in order to feed your families. Yet when harvest comes, they get the lions share of the income, while youre left with barely enough to last you till the next harvest. Many of our youths wont even have the chance to become farmers. Theyd be forced t wander and become laborers in somebody elses land. Are we to continue catering to the very few who are in power? I say no. Let us be one and take control of our future. Wouldnt you want to stop this war with the Germans in order for us to get on with our lives without fear of getting attacked? Let us stop fighting useless wars that cause famine in our lands. Let us call our soldiers home to help us attain a new government a government that is for the people. A government where each one of us share equally in the bounty of our lands. The government should be for us, common people. The nobles and the royals are but a few in this vast nation. It is us who make this nation function. We toil, we labor, we die so that a few elite could continue with their dinners and banquets and extravagance. I say, we must put a stop to this folly. For it is folly to submit and choose a greatly flawed system. It is folly to continue in this dismal state when there is a way to improve our lot. Let us make Russia a land of the people. Let us all be called Bolsheviks, for the name would be remembered in a distant future as the people who brought change in a country that has the potential to become great. We must change; and change requires no other way but to take up arms and fight. Fight, if we must. Fight the dictators of the land and drive them away from their throne. We have to unite and act. Food, land and peace. These, my friends, are our rightful due.

Toni Morrison and Charlotte Perkins Gilman :: comparison compare contrast essays

Toni Morrison and Charlotte Perkins Gilman    In this age of electric cars, flying machines, and Chinese take-out, it is easy to let certain every-day flaws slip past us.   Take for example language.   What percentage of American's say "I don't got any money" when in reality they don't have any money?   Sure it's just a minor flaw, a minute blemish that could easily pass unnoticed.   But, what about the next person who says, "I ain't got no money."   Is there a limit?   Is there a limit to how badly language can be mutilated, destroyed, or is death the ultimate confinement?   Nobel Prize winner, Toni Morrison, expresses her disgust and fear of such a death in her 1993 Nobel Prize Lecture.   She tells the story of an elderly blind woman whom is known and respected in her community for her wisdom and knowledge.   Morrison explains that "Among her people [the old woman] is both the law and its transgression" (Morrison 1993).   On one occasion, the woman is approached by some young people who are intent on taking advantage of her blindness.   They say, "Old woman, I hold in my hand a bird.   Tell me whether it is living or dead."   After some time the woman replies, "I don't know.   I don't know whether the bird you are holding is dead or alive, but what I do know is that it is in your hands. It is in your hands." (Morrison 1993)   Morrison interprets the bird to be language and the woman to be a practiced writer.  Ã‚   Morrison states that "[The woman] is worried about how the language she dreams in, given to her at birth, is handled, put into service, even withheld from her for certain nefarious purposes.   ...She believes that if the bird in the hands of her visitors is dead, the custodians are responsible for the corpse" (Morrison 1993).   The woman is aware that language, her very way of communicating with the world, her sole instrument of expression in modern society, is dying.   As language continues to die, the woman and her medium for expression become increasingly confined, with death as the final outcome.   She is shackled and detained by her inability to halt the holocaust, the complete and utter desecration of the language she loves so much.

Describe the Various Phases of Economic Cycle, Which a Country Might Experience and Explain the Possible Causes of Such Cycles.

The economic cycle is a fundamental economic understanding of the phases that an economy may experience during certain climates. This can be understood by the basic economic cycle diagram, which shows the different periods combined with a line representing trend growth. Governments ideally wish for uniform growth, close to or on the trend line, this is where the economy is continually expanding and growing at a rate which the government perceives to be sustainable. For example, the UK aim for 2. 5% trend growth, however due to the economic cycle we can understand that it rarely stays at one point for a long period of time. When the actual growth line is above trend rate, this is known as a positive output gap and when the actual growth line is below trend, a negative output gap. A boom period is a period on the economic cycle whereby the curve surpasses trend growth; this represents substantial economic growth and is represented by a peak in the economic cycle. Recessionary periods are stages in the economic cycle when growth falls, this occurs most commonly after a boom period and will lead to the next ‘trough’ in the economic cycle, or bust. Bust is whereby the economy is suffering a low point, they are at their lowest in terms of economic growth, operating much below the trend rate and is seen as a trough in the economic cycle. A recovery can be seen on the economic cycle diagram by the encroachment of actual growth to trend growth, and is therefore where the economy is growing gradually and ‘recovering’ from the bust period they have just suffered. The economy is likely to experience a boom period often in times when supply side policies exceed their time lag and their productivity can be seen. Or perhaps in the short term through a boost in demand side policies, such as a decrease in interest rates to encourage consumer spending, however such demand side policies are short-lived due to the accompanied inflation and therefore are unlikely to be the sole cause of a boom period. Similar to the causes of a boom period are the causes of a recovery, this can be induced by the government’s willingness to encourage spending or potentially increase labour productivity via methods such as training and education. Similarly to this, a recession can be combatted and forced into recovery by both monetary and fiscal policy. Monetary policy would focus on decreasing the money supply in order to stimulate the economy whereas fiscal supply focuses on government spending and tax. A reduce in taxes such as income tax would work in theory to get people back to work and therefore push out the PPB to potentially develop economic growth. As previously mentioned, it is possible for the government to stimulate aggregate demand using monetary policy, via a reduction in interest rates, however this does not come without its own problems, it leads to potential speculation of increasing price levels and inflation. However recessions and potential busts can be created in many numerous different ways, one of which previously just mentioned in terms of speculation. Speculative bubbles work via the communication of the consumer, for example, the Housing market was massively published and conversed about to rise dramatically over the coming years. This forced people to purchase houses there and then in the hope that they will be provided with a better price now than they would in the future, due to speculation they were correct in doing so. Such speculation skyrockets demand and with it too comes price levels, this is a common cause of a recessionary period. In addition to this demand-side shocks such as the credit crunch of 2008 in the USA, result in massive contractions of AD. Such demand side shocks come unpredictably in the economy, and thus make it very difficult for the government to prepare adequately for. Such negative demand shocks are expressed in the diagram below, whereby the shift from AD1 to AD2 can be seen. Supply side shocks are also uncontrollable and come normally with little preparation time for an economy, for example, due to the BP oil crisis of 2009, prices rose massively as BP prepared to lose millions of gallons of wealthy resources in the form of oil. On the other hand, a positive supply side shock could potentially be experiencing now, as a result of the Libyan crisis, negotiations are underway between the UK government and the Libyan government to set up and oil partnership. This could affect the supply of oil massively, and potential be a positive for the economy. Climatic Factors must also be mentioned with reference to the economic cycle, and often result in the further diminishing of the world’s smaller economies. For example the wildfires in Canada resulted in the global price of grain being bolstered largely, and therefore has the potential to put the economy into a recessionary period as one of their large exports suffered a major loss. Political Factors should also be mentioned when discussing the progress of an economic cycle, for example to make the appearance of a certain government positive, prior to an election they may attempt to boost employment in the UK. This is a last ditch effort from the politicians in order to sway the votes of their citizens. However, these jobs could be short-lived and are often not sustainable, therefore do more harm to the economy than good. To conclude, there are many causes of the economic cycle, some positive and some negative, however it depends on potential government preparation and intervention to prevent damage exceeding what it needs to, and recessionary periods to be continued for long periods of time. Economies must be well equipped to deal with unexpected occurrences in order to prevent long term suffering of economic growth.

Bashing on TV by Michael Abernethy and Wonder Woman by Gloria Steinem Essay

At first glance, the articles Male -Bashing on TV by Michael Abernethy and Wonder Woman by Gloria Steinem would not seem similar at all. However, if you take a much closer look at these two articles you will see that they are similar in many ways as well as different in several others. Comparing and contrasting is import because it illustrates ideas about the article that we may not have noticed before. In the article Male-Bashing on TV, it discusses the use of media and the affect that it has on our society. This article’s purpose is to expose the way the media portrays men. The media describes men as sluggish, dumb, and no good. These views have an extreme way of impacting society today. Abernethy’s article reveals various television shows that have male characters in them suggesting that men are useless without women. According to Gender Issues in Advertising Language, â€Å"television portrayals that help create or reinforce negative stereotypes can lead to problems with self- image, self- concept, and personal aspirations. † In the article Wonder Woman we see how the comic super- hero Wonder Woman was a revelation for women around the world, and a new way to represent women. Although, the question seems to remain whether or not her character was symbolizing was something that negatively affected our society or helped women to identify themselves. This article also stresses the importance media and entertainment has on people and how these images help mold and shape the characters of people today. Wonder Woman was seen as an ideal independent and strong woman who never needed a man. Steinem exposes Wonder Woman as a character that was used to sway women into accepting women’s liberation. Steinem notes that, â€Å"women get a rare message of independence, of depending on themselves, not even on Wonder Woman. You saved yourselves, as she says in one of her inevitable morals at story’s end. I only showed you that you could. † These two articles have many similarities. For example, they both bring to attention the affect that media has on our society. People all around the world are looking to these shows/ characters and idolizing them. They are using exactly what the media â€Å"feeds† them to build their own beliefs and morals. Also, both of these articles expose important issues in the world many people seem to disregard or not notice. Male-Bashing on TV and Wonder Woman are both articles that expose the truth and the media for how it has an importance on how we, as humans, behave, believe, and interact with others. As well as the similarities, these two articles differ in many ways. Male- Bashing on TV discusses how men are portrayed on television and Wonder Woman talks about how women are identified as strong and independent. They almost are complete opposites . The article Male-Bashing on TV notes that men are described as nothing without women. They are looked at by society as pathetic and silly. In Wonder Woman it talks about how women do not need men, and how women are independent without them. It is almost amusing how these two articles use each other’s extreme stereotypes to make their points. In closing, I would say that comparing and contrasting really reveals how the author might have looked at the issue and also shows us, as readers, the differences and similarities between two articles. Despite the differences among these two articles, they are more similar than people may confer.

My empirically testable Essays

My empirically testable Essays My empirically testable Paper My empirically testable Paper When I began contemplating starting a home based business selling Avon, my research had pretty much already been done. Being a user of the products for years knew that the items Avon sold were good products and lots of women used them. Whether I was at home, church or work I found that all the women within my circle were asking the same thing. Do you know an Avon, lady? So clearly to me this was a great opportunity for me to make some extra money. My empirically testable hypotheses was that knew that I already had potential customers seeking out these products. New the products were good because my family had been using them for years. Avon has been a household name for over a century, and is listed as the fifth-largest beauty company and second largest direct selling enterprise in the world. Overall the business opportunity appeared to be a great start for me and all it took was an investment of ten dollars. Also I would be providing needed products to hundreds of women. Statistics has shown that over the years, Avon has consistently manufactures some of the highest rated perfumes and body fragrances. Avon has also produced top-selling anti-aging reams that have proven results. The thing about Avon products was that it was not just hear say. Over the years I have seen these products work with my own eyes. Also I had several women that I knew personally, seeking out these products. Many women had already declared these products as their signature products. All they were missing was a consistent and faithful representative to supply their products. Marketing the product would be easy. Being that majority of the ladies were already seeking the product all simply had to do was mention that I had them for sale. As customer came t e I made it a priority to find out there favorite products, their likes and dislikes. In the beginning simply ordered product as my customers ordered them. Offering samples of perfumes, make-up and body oils and creams, allowed customers to try products before buying. Which also aided in the generation of new sales of products. Producing the potential for a larger inventory. Once I had accumulated a large client base. I began to stock products that my customers regularly ordered, to have them on hand where they were ready to place their order. Knowing their choice products enable e to be able to select other potential items that may be appealing to my customers. Managing the inventory I kept on hand soon became a hassle which prompted me to investigate was to keep track what I had on hand. Together with the help of my family I was able to develop a system that hell me not only account for the items as sell them, but keep an accurate number letting me know when have reached the minimum amount have set within the system. This inventory system lets me know when it is time etc reorder certain products and the Avon Sales Representatives website keep e up-to-date on the latest new items and trends. Overall the decision I made to get involved has proven to profitable decision.

Free Essays on Homelessness in America

Homelessness in America is one of the biggest political issues in America today. It occurs in every city in America. Homelessness has increased dramatically over the past ten to fifteen years. Many communities have doubled or tripled their shelter capacity in order to respond to increasing homelessness (NCH). Homeless men, women, and especially families are growing rapidly with the growing population. It seems that the problem is unsolvable in our society today. America is making changes to help the homeless get back on their feet. â€Å"HOMELESS† DEFINED Advocates civilized the use of the word â€Å"homeless† in the late 1970s, intending it as a non-stigmatizing way of referring to the street-dwelling poor and their counterparts in shelters. Faintly outdated itself, the term seemed well suited to a kind of poverty that had virtually vanished from the American landscape nearly four decades earlier. As the full dimensions of the problem have come into sharper focus, however, it is becoming clear that the term is showing signs of strain. In the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987, the legislation which created a series of targeted homeless assistance programs, the Federal Government defined â€Å"homeless† to mean: (1)An individual who lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate night-time residence; (2)An individual who has a primary night-time residence that is: a.A supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations (including welfare hotels, congregate shelters, and transitional housing for the mentally ill), b.An institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or, c.A public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings. (3)This term does not include any individual imprisoned or otherwise detained under an Act of Congress or State law. Pe... Free Essays on Homelessness in America Free Essays on Homelessness in America Homelessness in America is one of the biggest political issues in America today. It occurs in every city in America. Homelessness has increased dramatically over the past ten to fifteen years. Many communities have doubled or tripled their shelter capacity in order to respond to increasing homelessness (NCH). Homeless men, women, and especially families are growing rapidly with the growing population. It seems that the problem is unsolvable in our society today. America is making changes to help the homeless get back on their feet. â€Å"HOMELESS† DEFINED Advocates civilized the use of the word â€Å"homeless† in the late 1970s, intending it as a non-stigmatizing way of referring to the street-dwelling poor and their counterparts in shelters. Faintly outdated itself, the term seemed well suited to a kind of poverty that had virtually vanished from the American landscape nearly four decades earlier. As the full dimensions of the problem have come into sharper focus, however, it is becoming clear that the term is showing signs of strain. In the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987, the legislation which created a series of targeted homeless assistance programs, the Federal Government defined â€Å"homeless† to mean: (1) An individual who lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate night-time residence; (2) An individual who has a primary night-time residence that is: a. A supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations (including welfare hotels, congregate shelters, and transitional housing for the mentally ill), b. An institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or, c. A public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings. (3) This term does not include any individual imprisoned or otherwise detained under an Act of Congress or State law. Pe...

Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Report - Assignment Example This in turn would aid in taking decisions in an organization effectively. Discussion Combination of Both, the Text Chapter and Journal In today’s competitive business world, it is vital for every association to analyse the external along with internal settings before making any final decision. With reference to the book i.e. ‘Organisational Behaviour, An Introductory Text’ by Huczynski and Buchanan it can be viewed that the writers have underlined the significance of studying an environment in an business as it aids in making decisions that do help in mitigating a risk arising situation. This in turn facilitates to make effective strategies and policies to deal with any future risks. Moreover, the writers have also helped in understanding that conducting study to implement certain policies within a business may fail at times as it would not provide a detailed analysis of the outer world which comprises the changing trends, demands and all those factors that may a id a business to achieve its desired goals. The aspect of impression management has also been delineated as a crucial element as establishing a brand image has become vital for every organisation to maintain a substantial customer retention rate (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001). With reference to the journal i.e. ‘The Interorganizational Virtual Organisation’ by Kasper-Fuehrer and Ashkanasy, it can be viewed that the author here explains the importance of establishing virtual organisation (VO) in today’s commercial world. Additionally, the journal mainly highlights the importance of establishing interrogational forms that focus on establishing a cooperative purview to attain individual organisational goals. However, the journal article has also stated the importance of intra-organisational form. The main reason behind selecting this journal is that it has not only facilitated in understanding the different forms of virtual organisation but has offered evidences regar ding the way in which the establishment of VO can aid an organisation in every sphere (Kasper-Fuehrer & Ashkanasy, 2003). Self-Reflection With emergence of globalisation and the rapid technological proliferation, today’s businesses are growing at a rapid speed. It has therefore become vital for every business corporation to understand the external environment as it helps in making effective decisions along with enabling to identify techniques and potential impacts of the external trends. This external force mainly includes change in demand, change in technology, increasing competitiveness of the competitors, environmental policy and laws among others that have a direct influence on the internal operational characteristics of an association (Marcin & Wojciech, 2013). In this context, I would like to state that I have been a part of an organisation that mainly emphasised following contingency theory as an integral part of the operational activities. On close analysis, I have co me know that the main reason behind following the theory within the organisation has been owing to its acceptance factor that facilitates a business to analyse the environment along with making its sure that the proposed plan meets all the current requirements of the environment.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Black suffrage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Black suffrage - Essay Example Stanton served as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Elizabeth worked closely with Susan B. Anthony, Frederick Douglass (a former slave), her husband Henry Stanton and cousin Gerrit Smith. Lucretia Mott (1840) she was a great admirer of feminist, she was so angry when she couldn't see Mott speak because women were supposed to sit away from the view of men and for this reason Elizabeth Drafted a declaration of Sentiments Elizabeth Cady Stanton ones said, "The prejudice against color, of which we hear so much, is no stronger than that against sex. It is produced by the same cause, and manifested very much in the same way". Men have made women submit to law in which women have no voice, men have deprived women their rights as citizens, women rights to property have been deprived and that men have the monopoly to nearly all the profitable employments. Elizabeth can therefore be seen as a woman who has pioneered in the fight against women oppression. Although she fought for women rights to vote she died 20 years before women were granted this rights. She was an intelligent courageous and hardworking woman in that she dared give a speech in front of the committee of judiciary of the United States. Elizabeth died in October 26, 1902. Frederick Douglass served as a marshal of the District of Columbia and as consul general to the republic of Hai

The impact of service recovery on customer satisfaction, loyalty and Literature review

The impact of service recovery on customer satisfaction, loyalty and word-of-mouth - Literature review Example This essay discusses that service quality in the hospitality industry and hotels specifically has been an area of great research interest. Research has shown importance of service quality. Parsuraman et al. indicated that service quality of hotels is both a significant differentiator and the most aggressive weapon possessed by them. Leading organizations in the hotel industry ensure to put up a high level of service quality over their competitors for over large durations of time. The relationship between service quality and customer loyalty has been of great interest. Researchers have also investigated the relationship between customer loyalty and the complaints received from the customer. Heskett et al. define customer loyalty as repeated purchasing by the same customer and their willingness to recommend the product/service to other customers without any outright benefits. High customer loyalty is beneficial to the organization as it reduces the firms’ marketing costs and inc reases its market share. There can be various reasons of a customer being loyal to a hotel. While some might be loyal because of lack of options, others might face the problem of high cost of switching. Wong and Sohal in their research found that there is a positive relationship between service quality and customer loyalty in the retail trade. Researchers have concluded that service quality is positively related to behavioural outcomes including word-of-mouth, complaints, recommendations and loyalty. Measurement of the service quality expectations of service organizations is primarily done by using the tool SERVQUAL or its variants. Babakus & Boller (1992) and Carman (1990) found that amongst the hotel customers, the most important service quality dimensions are: assurance, reliability and tangibles. Many further studies (Saleh & Ryan, 1999; Fick & Ritchie, 1991) suggested the absence of any significant differences among the rankings of any of the five dimensions. The application of Servqual to two fine dining restaurants revealed the emergence of assurance, and reliability as importance expectations of the customers, and tangibles as the least important (Lee & Hing, 1995). Gabbie and O’Neill (1997) in their research in the hotel sector found that reliability and assurance were the most important

Most Opposition to Abortion Relies Essay Example for Free

Most Opposition to Abortion Relies Essay A Defense of Abortion Author(s): Judith Jarvis Thomson Source: Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Autumn, 1971), pp. 47-66 Published by: Blackwell Publishing Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/2265091 Accessed: 10/01/2010 00:54 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTORs Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTORs Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [emailprotected] org. Blackwell Publishing is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy and Public Affairs. http://www. jstor. org JUDITH JARVISTHOMSON A Defense of Abortion Most opposition to abortion relies on the premise that the fetus is a human being, a person, from the moment of conception. The premise is argued for, but, as I think, not well. Take, for example, the most common argument. We are asked to notice that the development of a human being from conception through birth into childhood is continuous; then it is said that to draw a line, to choose a point in this development and say before this point the thing is not a person, after this point it is a person is to make an arbitrary choice, a choice for which in the nature of things no good reason can be given. It is concluded that the fetus is, or anyway that we had better say it is, a person from the moment of conception. But this conclusion does not follow. Similar things might be said about the development of an acorn into an oak tree, and it does not follow that acorns are oak trees, or that we had better say they are. Arguments of this form are sometimes called slippery slope arguments-the phrase is perhaps self-explanatory-and it is dismaying that opponents of abortion rely on them so heavily and uncritically. I am inclined to agree, however, that the prospects for drawing a line in the development of the fetus look dim. I am inclined to think also that we shall probably have to agree that the fetus has already become a human person well before birth. Indeed, it comes as a surprise when one first learns how early in its life it begins to acquire human characteristics. By the tenth week, for example, it already has i. I am very much indebted to James Thomson for discussion, criticism, and many helpful suggestions. 48 Philosophy ; Public Affairs a face, arms and legs, fingers and toes; it has internal organs, and brain activity is detectable. 2 On the other hand, I think that the premise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of conception. A newly fertilized ovum, a newly implanted clump of cells, is no more a person than an acorn is an oak tree. But I shall not discuss any of this. For it seems to me to be of great interest to ask what happens if, for the sake of argument, we allow the premise. How, precisely, are we supposed to get from there to the conclusion that abortion is morally impermissible? Opponents of abortion commonly spend most of their time establishing that the fetus is a person, and hardly any time explaining the step from there to the impermissibility of abortion. Perhaps they think the step too simple and obvious to require much comment. Or perhaps instead they are simply being economical in argument. Many of those who defend abortion rely on the premise that the fetus is not a person, but only a bit of tissue that will become a person at birth; and why pay out more arguments than you have to? Whatever the explanation, I suggest that the step they take is neither easy nor obvious, that it calls for closer examination than it is commonly given, and that when we do give it this closer examination we shall feel inclined to reject it. I propose, then, that we grant that the fetus is a person. from the moment of conception. How does the argument go from here? Something like this, I take it. Every person has a right to life. So the fetus has a right to life. No doubt the mother has a right to decide what shall happen in and to her body; everyone would grant that. But surely a persons right to life is stronger and more stringent than the mothers right to decide what happens in and to her body, and so outweighs it. So the fetus may not be killed; an abortion may not be performed. It sounds plausible. But now let me ask you to imagine this. You wake up in the morning and find yourself back to back in bed with an unconscious violinist. A famous unconscious violinist. He has been found to have a fatal kidney ailment, and the Society of Music Lovers 2. Daniel Callahan, Abortion: Law, Choice and Morality (New York, 1970), p. 373. This book gives a fascinating survey of the available information on abortion. The Jewish tradition is surveyed in David M. Feldman, Birth Control in Jewish Law (New York, i968), Part 5, the Catholic tradition in John T. Noonan, Jr. , An Almost Absolute Value in History, in The Morality of Abortion, ed. John T. Noonan, Jr. (Cambridge, Mass. , 1970). 49 A Defense of Abortion has canvassed all the available medical records and found that you alone have the right blood type to help. They have therefore kidnapped you, and last night the violinists circulatory system was plugged into yours, so that your kidneys can be used to extract poisons from his blood as well as your own. The director of the hospital now tells you, Look, were sorry the Society of Music Lovers did this to you-we would never have permitted it if we had known. But still, they did it, and the violinist now is plugged into you. To unplug you would be to kill him. But never mind, its only for nine months. By then he will have recovered from his ailment, and can safely be unplugged from you. Is it morally incumbent on you to accede to this situation? No doubt it would be very nice of you if you did, a great kindness. But do you have to accede to it? What if it were not nine months, but nine years? Or longer still? What if the director of the hospital says, Tough luck, I agree, but youve now got to stay in bed, with the violinist plugged into you, for the rest of your life. Because remember this. All persons have a right to life, and violinists are persons. Granted you have a right to decide what happens in and to your body, but a persons right to life outweighs your right to decide what happens in and to your body. So you cannot ever be unplugged from him. I imagine you would regard this as outrageous, which suggests that something really is wrong with that plausible-sounding argument I mentioned a moment ago. In this case, of course, you were kidnapped; you didnt volunteer for the operation that plugged the violinist into your kidneys. Can those who oppose abortion on the ground I mentioned make an exception for a pregnancy due to rape? Certainly. They can say that persons have a right to life only if they didnt come into existence because of rape; or they can say that all persons have a right to life, but that some have less of a right to life than others, in particular, that those who came into existence because of rape have less. But these statements have a rather unpleasant sound. Surely the question of whether you have a right to life at all, or how much of it you have, shouldnt turn on the question of whether or not you are the product of a rape. And in fact the people who oppose abortion on the ground I mentioned do not make this distinction, and hence do not make an exception in case of rape. 50 Philosophy ; Public Affairs Nor do they make an exception for a case in which the mother has to spend the nine months of her pregnancy in bed. They would agree that would be a great pity, and hard on the mother; but all the same, all persons have a right to ife, the fetus is a person, and so on. I suspect, in fact, that they would not make an exception for a case in which, miraculously enough, the pregnancy went on for nine years, or even the rest of the mothers life. Some wont even make an exception for a case in which continuation of the pregnancy is likely to shorten the mothers life; they regard abortion as impermissible even to save the mothers life. Such case s are nowadays very rare, and many opponents of abortion do not accept this extreme view. Moreover, in killing the child, one would be killing an innocent person, for the child has committed no crime, and is not aiming at his mothers death. And then there are a variety of ways in which this 3. The term direct in the arguments I refer to is a technical one. Roughly, what is meant by direct killing is either killing as an end in itself, or killing as a means to some end, for example, the end of saving someone elses life. See note 6, below, for an example of its use. 51 A Defense of Abortion might be continued. i) But as directly killing an innocent person is always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may not be performed. Or, (2) as directly killing an innocent person is murder, and murder is always and absolutely impermissible, an abortion may not be performed. Because unplugging you would be directly killing an innocent violinist, and thats murder, and thats impermissible. If anything in the world is true, it is that you do not commit murder, you do not do what is impermissible, if you reach around to your back and unplug yourself from that violinist to save your life. The main focus of attention in writings on abortion has been on what a third party may or may not do in answer to a request from a woman for an abortion. This is in a way understandable. Things being as they are, there isnt much a woman can safely do to abort herself. So the question asked is what a third party may do, and what the mother may do, if it is mentioned at all, is deduced, almost as an afterthought, from what it is concluded that third parties may do. But it seems to me that to treat the matter in this way is to refuse to grant to the mother that very status of person which is so firmly insisted on for the fetus. For we cannot simply read off what a person may do from what a third party may do. Suppose you find yourself trapped in a tiny house with a growing child. I mean a very tiny house, and a rapidly growing child-you are already up against the wall f the house and in a few minutes youll be crushed to death. The child on the other hand wont be crushed to death; if nothing is done to stop him from growing hell be hurt, but in the end hell simply burst open the house and walk out a free man. Now I could well understand it if a bystander were to say, Theres nothing we can do for you. We cannot choose between your life and his, we cann ot be the ones to decide who is to live, we cannot intervene. But it cannot be concluded that you too can do nothing, that you cannot attack it to save your life. However innocent the child may be, you do not have to wait passively while it crushes you to death. Perhaps a pregnant woman is vaguely felt to have the status of house, to which we dont allow the 53 A Defense of Abortion right of self-defense. But if the woman houses the child, it should be remembered that she is a person who houses it. 1 should perhaps stop to say explicitly that I am not claiming that people have a right to do anything whatever to save their lives. I think, rather, that there are drastic limits to the right of self-defense. If someone threatens you with death unless you torture someone else to death, I think you have not the right, even to save your life, to do so. But the case under consideration here is very different. In our case there are only two people involved, one whose life is threatened, and one who threatens it. Both are innocent: the one who is threatened is not threatened because of any fault, the one who threatens does not threaten because of any fault. For this reason we may feel that we bystanders cannot intervene. But the person threatened can. In sum, a woman surely can defend her life against the threat to it posed by the unborn child, even if doing so involves its death. And this shows not merely that the theses in (i) through (4) are false; it shows also that the extreme view of abortion is false, and so we need not canvass any other possible ways of arriving at it from the argument I mentioned at the outset. 2. The extreme view could of course be weakened to say that while abortion is permissible to save the mothers life, it may not be performed by a third party, but only by the mother herself. But this cannot be right either. For what we have to keep in mind is that the mother and the unborn child are not like two tenants in a small house which has, by an unfortunate mistake, been rented to both: the mother owns the house. The fact that she does adds to the offensiveness of deducing that the mother can do nothing from the supposition that third parties can do nothing. But it does more than this: it casts a bright light on the supposition that third parties can do nothing. Certainly it lets us see that a third party who says I cannot choose between you is fooling himself if he thinks this is impartiality. If Jones has found and fastened on a certain coat, which he needs to keep him from freezing, but which Smith also needs to keep him from freezing, then it is not impartiality that says I cannot choose between you when Smith owns the coat. Women have said again and again This body is my body! and they have reason to feel angry, reason to feel that it has been like shouting into the wind. Smith, after all, is 54 Philosophy Public Affairs hardly likely to bless us if we say to him, Of course its your coat, anybody would grant that it is. But no one may choose between you and Jones who is to have it. We should really ask what it is that says no one may choose in the face of the fact that the body that houses the child is the mothers body. It may be simply a failure to appreciate this fact. But it may be something more interesting, namely the sense that one has a right to refuse to lay hands on people, even where it would be just and fair to do so, even where justice seems to require t hat somebody do so. Thus justice might call for somebody to get Smiths coat back from Jones, and yet you have a right to refuse to be the one to lay hands on Jones, a right to refuse to do physical violence to him. This, I think, must be granted. But then what should be said is not no one may choose, but only I cannot choose, and indeed not even this, but I will not act, leaving it open that somebody else can or should, and in particular that anyone in a position of authority, with the job of securing peoples rights, both can and should. So this is no difficulty. I have not been arguing that any given third party must accede to the mothers request that he perform an abortion to save her life, but only that he may. I suppose that in some views of human life the mothers body is only on loan to her, the loan not being one which gives her any prior claim to it. One who held this view might well think it impartiality to say I cannot choose. But I shall simply ignore this possibility. My own view is that if a human being has any just, prior claim to anything at all, he has a just, prior claim to his own body. And perhaps this neednt be argued for here anyway, since, as I mentioned, the arguments against abortion we are looking at do grant that the woman has a right to decide what happens in and to her body. But although they do grant it, I have tried to show that they do not take seriously what is done in granting it. I suggest the same thing will reappear even more clearly when we turn away from cases in which the mothers life is at stake, and attend, as I propose we now do, to the vastly more common cases in which a woman wants an abortion for some less weighty reason than preserving her own life. 3. Where the mothers life is not at stake, the argument I mentioned at the outset seems to have a much stronger pull. Everyone 55 A Defense of Abortion as a right to life, so the unborn person has a right to life. And isnt the childs right to life weightier than anything other than the mothers own right to life, which she might put forward as ground for an abortion? This argument treats the right to life as if it were unproblematic. It is not, and this seems to me to be precisely the source of the mistake. For we should now, at long last, ask what it comes to, to have a right to life. In so me views having a right to life includes having a right to be given at least the bare minimum one needs for continued life. But suppose that what in fact is the bare minimum a man needs for continued life is something he has no right at all to be given? If I am sick unto death, and the only thing that will save my life is the touch of Henry Fondas cool hand on my fevered brow, then all the same, I have no right to be given the touch of Henry Fondas cool hand on my fevered brow. It would be frightfully nice of him to fly in from the West Coast to provide it. It would be less nice, though no doubt well meant, if my friends flew out to the West Coast and carried Henry Fonda back with them. But I have no right at all against anybody that he should do this for me. Or again, to return to the story I told earlier, the fact that for continued life that violinist needs the continued use of your kidneys does not establish that he has a right to be given the continued use of your kidneys. He certainly has no right against you that you should give him continued use of your kidneys. For nobody has any right to use your kidneys unless you give him such a right; and nobody has the right against you that you shall give him this right-if you do allow him to go on using your kidneys, this is a kindness on your part, and not something he can claim from you as his due. Nor has he any right against anybody else that they should give him continued use of your kidneys. Certainly he had no right against the Society of Music Lovers that they should plug him into you in the first place. And if you now start to unplug yourself, having learned that you will otherwise have to spend nine years in bed with him, there is nobody in the world who must try to prevent you, in order to see to it that he is given something he has a right to be given. Some people are rather stricter about the right to life. In their view, it does not include the right to be given anything, but amounts to, 56 Philosophy Public Affairs and only to, the right not to be killed by anybody. But here a related difficulty arises. If everybody is to refrain from killing that violinist, then everybody must refrain from doing a great many different sorts of things. Everybody must refrain from slitting his throat, everybody must refrain from shooting him-and everybody must refrain from unplugging you from him. But does he have a right against everybody that they shall refrain from unplugging you from him? To refrain from doing this is to allow him to continue to use your kidneys. It could be argued that he has a right against us that we should allow him to continue to use your kidneys. That is, while he had no right against us that we should give him the use of your kidneys, it might be argued that he anyway has a right against us that we shall not now intervene and deprive him of the use of your kidneys. I shall come back to third-party interventions later. But certainly the violinist has no right against you that you shall allow him to continue to use your kidneys. As I said, if you do allow him to use them, it is a kindness on your part, and not something you owe him. The difficulty I point to here is not peculiar to the right to life. It reappears in connection with all the other natural rights; and it is something which an adequate account of rights must deal with. For present purposes it is enough just to draw attention to it. But I would stress that I am not arguing that people do not have a right to lifequite to the contrary, it seems to me that the primary control we must place on the acceptability of an account of rights is that it should turn out in that account to be a truth that all persons have a right to life. I am arguing only that having a right to life does not guarantee having either a right to be given the use of or a right to be allowed continued use of another persons body-even if one needs it for life itself. So the right to life will not serve the opponents of abortion in the very simple and clear way in which they seem to have thought it would. 4. There is another way to bring out the difficulty. In the most ordinary sort of case, to deprive someone of what he has a right to is to treat him unjustly. Suppose a boy and his small brother are jointly given a box of chocolates for Christmas. If the older boy takes the box and refuses to give his brother any of the chocolates, he is unjust to -him, for the brother has been given a right to half of them. But 57 A Defense of Abortion uppose that, having learned that otherwise it means nine years in bed with that violinist, you unplug yourself from him. You surely are not being unjust to him, for you gave him no right to use your kidneys, and no one else can have given him any such right. But we have to notice that in unplugging yourself, you are killing him; and violinists, like everybody else, have a right to life, and thus in the view we wer e considering just now, the right not to be killed. So here you do what he supposedly has a right you shall not do, but you do not act unjustly to him in doing it. The emendation which may be made at this point is this: the right to life consists not in the right not to be killed, but rather in the right not to be killed unjustly. This runs a risk of circularity, but never mind: it would enable us to square the fact that the violinist has a right to life with the fact that you do not act unjustly toward him in unplugging yourself, thereby killing him. For if you do not kill him unjustly, you do not violate his right to life, and so it is no wonder you do him no injustice. But if this emendation is accepted, the gap in the argument against abortion stares us plainly in the face: it is by no means enough to show that the fetus is a person, and to remind us that all persons have a right to life-we need to be shown also that killing the fetus violates its right to life, i. e. , that abortion is unjust killing. And is it? I suppose we may take it as a datum that in a case of pregnancy due to rape the mother has not given the unborn person a right to the use of her body for food and shelter. Indeed, in what pregnancy could it be supposed that the mother has given the unborn person such a right? It is not as if there were unborn persons drifting about the world, to whom a woman who wants a child says I invite you in. But it might be argued that there are other ways one can have acquired a right to the use of another persons body than by having been invited to use it by that person. Suppose a woman voluntarily indulges in intercourse, knowing of the chance it will issue in pregnancy, and then she does become pregnant; is she not in part responsible for the presence, in fact the very existence, of the unborn person inside her? No doubt she did not invite it in. But doesnt her partial responsibility for its being there itself give it a right to the use of her 58 Philosophy ; Public Affairs body? 7 If so, then her aborting it would be more like the boys taking away the chocolates, and less like your unplugging yourself from the violinist-doing so would be depriving it of what it does have a right to, and thus would be doing it an injustice. And then, too, it might be asked whether or not she can kill it even to save her own life: If she voluntarily called it into existence, how can she now kill it, even in self-defense? The first thing to be said about this is that it is something new. Opponents of abortion have been so concerned to make out the independence of the fetus, in order to establish that it has a right to life, just as its mother does, that they have tended to overlook the possible support they might gain from making out that the fetus is dependent on the mother, in order to establish that she has a special kind of responsibility for it, a responsibility that gives it rights against her which are not possessed by any independent person-such as an ailing violinist who is a stranger to her. On the other hand, this argument would give the unborn person a right to its mothers body only if her pregnancy resulted from a voluntary act, undertaken in full knowledge of the chance a pregnancy might result from it. It would leave out entirely the unborn person whose existence is due to rape. Pending the availability of some further argument, then, we would be left with the conclusion that unborn persons whose existence is due to rape have no right to the use of their mothers bodies, and thus that aborting them is not depriving them of anything they have a right to and hence is not unjust killing. And we should also notice that it is not at all plain that this argument really does go even as far as it purports to. For there are cases and cases, and the details make a difference. If the room is stuffy, and I therefore open a window to air it, and a burglar climbs in, it would be absurd to say,Ah, now he can stay, shes given him a right to the use of her house-for she is partially responsible for his presence there, having voluntarily done what enabled him to get in, in full knowledge that there are such things as burglars, and that burglars 7. The need for a discussion of this argument was brought home to me by members of the Society for Ethical and Legal Philosophy, to whom this paper was originally presented. 59 A Defense of Abortion burgle. It would be still more absurd to say this if I had had bars installed outside my windows, precisely to prevent burglars from getting in, and a burglar got in only because of a defect in the bars. It remains equally absurd if we imagine it is not a burglar who climbs in, but an innocent person who blunders or falls in. Again, suppose it were like this: people-seeds drift about in the air like pollen, and if you open your windows, one may drift in and take root in your carpets or upholstery. You dont want children, so you fix up your windows with fine mesh screens, the very best you can buy. As can happen, however, and on very, very rare occasions does happen, one of the screens is defective; and a seed drifts in and takes root. Does the person-plant who now develops have a right to the use of your house? Surely not-despite the fact that you voluntarily opened your windows, you knowingly kept carpets and upholstered furniture, and you knew that screens were sometimes defective. Someone may argue that you are responsible for its rooting, that it does have a right to your house, because after all you could have lived out your life with bare floors and furniture, or with sealed windows and doors. But this wont do-for by the same token anyone can avoid a pregnancy due to rape by having a hysterectomy, or anyway by never leaving home without a (reliable! army. It seems to me that the argument we are looking at can establish at most that there are some cases in which the unborn person has a right to the use of its mothers body, and therefore some cases in which abortion is unjust killing. There is room for much discussion and argument as to precisely which, if any. But I think we should sidestep this issue and leave it open, for at any rate the argument certainly does not establish that al l abortion is unjust killing. 5. There is room for yet another argument here, however. We surely must all grant that there may be cases in which it would be morally indecent to detach a person from your body at the cost of his life. Suppose you learn that what the violinist needs is not nine years of your life, but only one hour: all you need do to save his life is to spend one hour in that bed with him. Suppose also that letting him use your kidneys for that one hour would not affect your health in the slightest. Admittedly you were kidnapped. Admittedly you did not give 6o Philosophy Public Affairs anyone permission to plug him into you. Nevertheless it seems to me plain you ought to allow him to use your kidneys for that hour-it would be indecent to refuse. Again, suppose pregnancy lasted only an hour, and constituted no threat to life or health. And suppose that a woman becomes pregnant as a result of rape. Admittedly she did not voluntarily do anything to bring about the existence of a child. Admittedly she did nothing at all which would give the unborn person a right to the use of her body. All the same it might well be said, as in the newly emended violinist story, that she ought to allow it to remain for that hour-that it would be indecent in her to refuse. Now some people are inclined to use the term rightin such a way that it follows from the fact that you ought to allow a person to use your body for the hour he needs, that he has a right to use your body for the hour he needs, even though he has not been given that right by any person or act. They may say that it follows also that if you refuse, you act unjustly toward him. This use of the term is perhaps so common that it cannot be called wrong; nevertheless it seems to me to be an unfortunate loosening of what we would do better to keep a tight rein on. Suppose that box of chocolates I mentioned earlier had not been given to both boys jointly, but was given only to the older boy. There he sits, stolidly eating his way through the box, his small brother watching enviously. Here we are likely to say Youought not to be so mean. You ought to give your brother some of those chocolates. My own view is that it just does not follow from the truth of this that the brother has any right to any of the chocolates. If the boy refuses to give his brother any, he is greedy, stingy, callous-but not unjust. I suppose that the people I have in mind will say it does follow that the brother has a right to some of the chocolates, and thus that the boy does act unjustly if he refuses to give his brother any. But the effect of saying this is to obscure what we should keep distinct, namely the difference between the boys refusal in this case and the boys refusal in the earlier case, in which the box was given to both boys jointly, and in which the small brother thus had what was from any point of view clear title to half. A further objection to so using the term rightthat from the fact that A ought to do a thing for B, it follows that B has a right against A 6I A Defense of Abortion that A do it for him, is that it is going to make the question of whether or not a man has a right to a thing turn on how easy it is to provide him with it; and this seems not merely unfortunate, but morally unacceptable. Take the case of Henry Fonda again. I said earlier that I had no right to the touch of his cool hand on my fevered brow, even though I needed it to save my life. I said it would be frightfully nice of him to fly in from the West Coast to provide me with it, but that I had no right against him that he should do so. But suppose he isnt on the West Coast. Suppose he has only to walk across the room, place a hand briefly on my brow-and lo, my life is saved. Then surely he ought to do it, it would be indecent to refuse. Is it to be said Ah, well, it follows that in this case she has a right to the touch of his hand on her brow, and so it would be an injustice in him to refuse? So that I have a right to it when it is easy for him to provide it, though no right when its hard? Its rather a shocking idea that anyones rights should fade away and disappear as it gets harder and harder to accord them to him. So my own view is that even though you ought to let the violinist use your kidneys for the one hour he needs, we should not conclude that he has a right to do so-we should say that if you refuse, you are, like the boy who owns all the chocolates and will give none away, self-centered and callous, indecent in fact, but not unjust. And similarly, that even supposing a case in which a woman pregnant due to rape ought to allow the unborn person to use her body for the hour he needs, we should not conclude that he has a right to do so; we should conclude that she is self-centered, callous, indecent, but not unjust, if she refuses. The complaints are no less grave; they are just different. However, there is no need to insist on this point. If anyone does wish to deduce he has a ight from you ought, then all the same he must surely grant that there are cases in which it is not morally required of you that you allow that violinist to use your kidneys, and in which he does not have a right to use them, and in which you do not do him an injustice if you refuse. And so also for mother and unborn child. Except in such cases as the unborn person has a right to demand it-and we were leaving open the possibility that there may be such cases-nobody is morally required to make large sacrifices, of health, of all other interes ts and concerns, of all other duties 62 Philosophy Public Affairs and commitments, for nine years, or even for nine months, in order to keep another person alive. 6. We have in fact to distinguish between two kinds of Samaritan: the Good Samaritan and what we might call the Minimally Decent Samaritan. The story of the Good Samaritan, you will remember, goes like this: A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped him of his raiment, and wounded him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance there came down a certain priest that way; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And likewise a Levite, when he was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was; and when he saw him he had compassion on him. And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow, when he departed, he took out two pence, and gave them to the host, and said unto him, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, when I come again, I will repay thee. (Luke I0:30-35) The Good Samaritan went out of his way, at some cost to himself, to help one in need of it. We are not told what the options were, that is, whether or not the priest and the Levite could have helped by doing less than the Good Samaritan did, but assuming they could have, then the fact they did nothing at all shows they were not even Minimally Decent Samaritans, not because they were not Samaritans, but because they were n ot even minimally decent. These things are a matter of degree, of course, but there is a difference, and it comes out perhaps most clearly in the story of Kitty Genovese, who, as you will remember, was murdered while thirtyeight people watched or listened, and did nothing at all to help her. A Good Samaritan would have rushed out to give direct assistance 63 A Defense of Abortion against the murderer. Or perhaps we had better allow that it would have been a Splendid Samaritan who did this, on the ground that it would have involved a risk of death for himself. But the thirty-eight not only did not do this, they did not even trouble to pick up a phone to call the police. Minimally Decent Samaritanism would call for doing at least that, and their not having done it was monstrous. After telling the story of the Good Samaritan, Jesus said Go, and do thou likewise. Perhaps he meant that we are morally required to act as the Good Samaritan did. Perhaps he was urging people to do more than is morally required of them. At all events it seems plain that it was not morally required of any of the thirty-eight that he rush out to give direct assistance at the risk of his own life, and that it is not morally required of anyone that he give long stretches of his lifenine years or nine months-to sustaining the life of a person who has no special right (we were leaving open the possibility of this) to demand it. Indeed, with one rather striking class of exceptions, no one in any country in the world is legally required to do anywhere near as much as this for anyone else.